Every piece of literature conveys meaning, but understanding its message can be a complicated process. In many cases, unless stated otherwise by the author, the message can be subjective. This means each of us might interpret the same text in a slightly different way.

This is why scholars have devised ways to understand how people interpret a text. These ways have since become known as literary theories.

What Is Literary Theory?

Literary theory is a school of thought that provides readers with the logical means to critique the concepts, ideas, and principles of a certain piece of literature. Essentially, the question that it seeks to answers is: What is literature?

A basic way of looking at literary theories is that each of them is a specific lens through which you can view a piece of literature. This allows you to focus on particular aspects of a work that the literary theory thinks is important.

Let’s say you’re reading a novel set during World War II. If you chose a Marxist approach, you’ll probably look at how the characters interact based on their economic and social standing. But if you view it through a feminist lens, the experience of being female during the war becomes your focus.

Literary Theory vs. Literary Criticism

Literary theory and literary criticism are two terms that are often used interchangeably, but while they have a close relationship, they are not the same.

Literary theory is a framework of ideas that guide you in understanding a particular work of literature. On the other hand, literary criticism is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. The former is theoretical, the latter practical.

Thus, literary theory provides the methods for how you look at the meaning of literature, while literary criticism is how you use those methods to understand the work’s meaning.

Schools of Literary Theory

There are many schools of literary theory, each designed to view literature from a different angle. This can range from the time period, to the writer’s background, geographic location, and more. As perspectives change, new schools are established while existing ones are reinforced.

Below are some of the most common theories being used for literary criticism. Do note that the explanations below are only meant as an overview. They are by no means the only way of distinguishing each separate school of literary theory.

1. Archetypal Criticism

Archetypal criticism is the interpretation of a text based on the archetypes that appear time and time again in a wide variety of literature. Psychologist Carl Jung postulated that these elements come from humanity’s “collective unconscious,” a kind of universal psyche.

By tracing these elements from classic works to modern texts, we can gain an understanding of humanity’s universal conflicts and desires. Literature is then what links all human experience regardless of time and space. An archetype will elicit the same response from someone in Asia 500 years ago and someone in Europe today.

In his work The Hero with a Thousand Faces, Joseph Campbell lays out his theories about the narrative archetype called the hero’s journey or the monomyth. While cultures may be separated by time and space, their mythologies all seem to follow the same basic structure.

In many myths, religious and spiritual texts, and literary classics, the hero sets out on a quest, surpasses many obstacles, and finally reaches their goal.

Some examples are Odysseus, Huang Ti, King Arthur, Neo, Frodo, and Harry Potter. Even religious figures such as Jesus, Muhammad ibn Abdullah, the Buddha, Anansi, and Osiris exhibit traits of the monomyth.

2. Feminist Criticism

Feminist criticism uses the principles and ideals of feminism to critique literature. It suggests that civilization is largely patriarchal and that history and literature are largely written and studied through the male point of view.

In doing so, it aims to uncover the implicit and explicit misogyny that may be contained in writing about women, the exclusion of women in the literary canon, and other types of marginalization.

Common feminist criticisms in literature are weak female characters, idealized female representations written by male writers, and female characters in positions that are always beneath males. In resorting to these stereotypes, writers fail to present the true complexity of the female gender.

Shakespeare’s The Taming of the Shrew has been a subject of fierce debate. The arguments vary, but the most common issues being discussed are sexism, the subjugation and objectification of women, and cruelty.

A specific scene that’s often quoted is Petruchio’s soliloquy in Act 4 Scene 1. In it, he likens himself to a falconer that must teach Katherina, a wild hawk, to obey and “come to know the keeper’s call.”

3. Marxist Criticism

Based on Karl Marx’s doctrines, this theory emphasizes class, socioeconomic situations, the power relations among different segments of society, and how these segments are represented.

Marxist criticism supposes that literature can be analyzed through the social and material conditions that it was created. So a writer’s social situation determines what characters, political ideas, and economic declarations will develop in their text.

The Hunger Games has strong Marxian undertones. Most of the population is beset with poverty and scarcity. And while the districts (the proletariat) have varying levels of wealth, they are ultimately at the mercy of the Capitol (the bourgeoisie). The plot centers on the struggles between these two sides and the social transformation it will bring.

4. Reader-Response Criticism

In reader-response criticism, to understand a text, the processes that the readers use to create meaning and experience must be considered. This is in contrast to most other schools that focus more on the author or content of the work.

It believes that literature has no objective meaning. Readers bring their own thoughts, emotions, and experiences into a work that they’re reading. Thus, whatever they take from it is based on their own expectations and ideas at the time of reading.

Reader-response criticisms are of a personal nature. For example, reading The Parable of the Prodigal Son can have different responses from people with different backgrounds. A parent with a rebellious child might focus on the father and the significance of his forgiveness. Someone with a checkered past might sympathize more with the son.

5. Deconstruction

Deconstruction recognizes that literature has no fixed meaning (and thus can mean anything) because meaning itself is unstable. Language is ever-changing so attaching static meanings and ideals to a text is impossible.

Instead, it tries to demonstrate that any text is not a unified and logical whole, but has a variety of irreconcilably contradictory meanings. Put simply, language in a text cannot describe any truth and any criticism of language will not get to the truth because language is flawed to begin with.

For example, take a look at the sentence, “This is light.” Judging on the context given, there’s no way to know whether “light” is being used as an adjective or a noun. Therefore, the sentence is unstable and can mean either.

6. Formalism

Formalism treats a work of literature as its own distinct piece, separate from its cultural, social, historical, and even authorial context. As such, its focus is purely on its form, including grammar, syntax, meter, and rhythm.

The true meaning of a text can only be determined by analyzing the formal elements of a text and seeing how they work to create a cohesive whole. Non-formal elements only create false impressions that jeopardize a reader’s interpretation.

A formalist would then analyze Kafka’s The Metamorphosis purely on the text, through the parts told in a limited third-person POV and only Gregor’s thoughts and emotions are revealed unless the other characters show theirs through action or dialogue.

7. Psychoanalytic Criticism

Psychoanalytic criticism is based on Sigmund Freud’s theories in psychology, including those of the consciousnesses and the unconscious. It argues that much like dreams, literary texts are a manifestation of the author’s neuroses, revealing their unconscious desires and anxieties.

A character from a text may be psychoanalyzed, but the usual assumption is that all characters are a projection of the author’s psyche. The author’s traumas, fixations, guilts, and conflicts many be traced through how these characters behave.

The story of Oedipus Rex is perhaps the most commonly psychoanalyzed piece of literature, started by Freud himself. He introduced the concept of the Oedipus complex, a purported universal phase of boys where they hate their fathers and want to have sex with their mothers.

8. Postcolonial criticism

Postcolonial criticism concerns itself with literature written by colonizers and those who were/are colonized. In particular, it looks at issues of culture, religion, politics, and economics within the text and how these relate to colonial hegemony (the colonizer’s act of controlling the colonized).

Put simply, it addresses the problems, consequences, and challenges that a decolonized country goes through. Specifically, it looks at these countries’ struggles with political and cultural independence, racism, and colonial mentality.

The destructiveness of British colonization is a central theme in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart. Thus, he points out the negative effects of the imposition of Western culture, beliefs, and economics on Nigerians during colonial rule.

Conversely, a critic from the West might focus more on glorifying the exploratory feats of European powers during that time.

9. Queer Theory

Queer theory explores the representation of gender and sexuality in literature. It challenges the assumption that heterosexuality is the preferred or normal mode of sexual orientation—a notion that is reinforced by certain social institutions such as marriage, employment, and adoption rights.

It argues that sexuality is fluid and plural, not a fixed identity. Thus, queer theory is interested in the breakdown of binaries such as gay/straight, masculine/feminine, and mother/father. Queer theorists are then primarily concerned about those who don’t fit in conventional categories such as intersex, bisexuals, and trans people.

Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray is a favorite of queer theory critics, with some calling it early evidence of the emerging homosexual identity in Victorian London. Much of its text may contain innuendos that indicate something other than heterosexuality.

For example, Basil’s attraction to the titular character is evident in how he describes Dorian as having a strong influence on his art. This is followed by him professing to Lord Henry that “As long as I live, the personality of Dorian Gray will dominate me.”

10. New Historicism

New Historicism acknowledges that literature isn’t only influenced by the history of the author, but also that of the critic. Put simply, the writer’s circumstances shape their writing, their work reflects their time, and the critic’s circumstances and environment affect their criticism.

This theory then reveals that literary criticism is impermanent. Current criticisms are colored by current prejudices, social environments, and beliefs much like literature affects and is affected by its historical context. As times change, so will the understanding of a particular work.

Many argue that Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice is anti-Semitic. New Historicists understand that this can’t be resolved with a simple yes or no answer. The work must be studied along with its context. New Historicists will also admit that the resulting criticism is “tainted” by their own culture and environment.

The Importance of Literary Theories

All literary theories are starting points from which we can better understand a piece of literature, learn more about the author’s intentions, and improve the quality of said literature for both the author and the critic. One theory is not better than the others, each is just a different way of seeking an answer to a question.

You’re not required to follow one particular theory in your criticism. Many people often use multiple theories to gain a broader appreciation of the literature they’re studying. Plus, it’s sometimes fun to delve into a text with different theories as you often end up with a whole new perspective.

Many of these theories are not only applied in literature, but also in other facets of humanity, including other types of art, psychology, sociology, philosophy, and language. In studying these theories and applying them to your criticisms, you’ll often encounter ideas that take you in different directions.

There are definitely more literary theories than the ones listed above. Some are old and out of use, others are updated to keep up with today’s literature, and still others are being created based on social and cultural movements.

Did you find this post helpful? Share your thoughts in the comments below!

 

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